List of heads of state of Afghanistan

Monarch of Afghanistan
Monarch of Afghanistan
د افغانستان پاچا (Pashto) ; پادشاه افغانستان (Dari);
	Royal Standard ; (1931–1973)
	Last to reign: ; Mohammad Zahir Shah ; 8 November 1933 – 17 July 1973
Details
Style	His Majesty
First monarch	Mirwais Hotak (Emir)
Last monarch	Mohammad Zahir Shah (King)
Formation	1709
Abolition	17 July 1973
Residence	Kabul: Bala Hissar ; (18th century – 1880); Arg-e-Shahi ; (19th century – 1973);
Appointer	Hereditary
Pretender(s)	Prince Muhammad Zahir Khan

This article lists the heads of state of Afghanistan since the foundation of the first modern Afghan state, the Hotak Empire, in 1709.

History

The Hotak Empire was formed after a successful uprising led by Mirwais Hotak and other Afghan tribal chiefs from the Kandahar region against Mughal and Safavid Persian rule.^[1]^[2]^[3]

After a long series of wars, the Hotak Empire was eventually replaced by the Durrani Afghan Empire, founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747.^[4]^[5]

After the collapse of the Durrani Empire in 1823, the Barakzai dynasty founded the Emirate of Kabul, later known as the Emirate of Afghanistan. The Durrani dynasty regained power in 1839, during the First Anglo-Afghan War, when former ruler Shah Shujah Durrani seized the throne under the British auspices. Shah Shujah was assassinated in 1842, following the British retreat. Afterwards the Barakzai dynasty regained power, eventually transformed the Emirate into the Kingdom of Afghanistan in 1926, and ruled the country (with an interruption in 1929) until the last king, Mohammad Zahir Shah, was deposed in the 1973 coup d'état, led by his first cousin Mohammad Daoud Khan. Despite being part of the Barakzai dynasty, Daoud Khan departed from tradition and did not proclaim himself Shah, instead abolished the monarchy and established the Republic of Afghanistan, with himself as President.^[6]^[7] The Republic lasted until the PDPA–led Saur Revolution in 1978.^[8]

Since 1978, Afghanistan has been in a state of continuous internal conflict and foreign interventions.^[9]^[10]

President Hamid Karzai became the first ever democratically elected head of state of Afghanistan on 7 December 2004. His successor, Ashraf Ghani, was in power from 29 September 2014 to 15 August 2021, when he fled the country as Kabul fell to the Taliban following its 2021 offensive.^[11]

Upon its recapture of Kabul, the Taliban reinstated the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, and its supreme leader since 2016, Islamic scholar Hibatullah Akhundzada, de facto succeeded Ghani as head of state.^[12]

List of heads of state

(Dates in italics indicate de facto continuation of office)

Monarchs

Hotak Empire (1709–1738)

Name	Lifespan	Reign start	Reign end	Notes	Family
Mirwais Hotak Mirwais the Grandfather	1673–1715	1709	1715	Established the Hotak dynasty in Kandahar.	Hotak
Abdul Aziz Hotak	Died 1717	1715	1717	Brother of Mirwais Hotak	Hotak
Mahmud Hotak	1697 – 22 April 1725	1717	22 April 1725	Son of Mirwais Hotak	Hotak
Ashraf Hotak	Died 1730	22 April 1725	1730	Nephew of Mirwais Hotak	Hotak
Hussain Hotak	Died 1738	1730	24 March 1738 (deposed)	Son of Mirwais Hotak Deposed by Nader Shah in Siege of Kandahar	Hotak

Durrani Empire (1747–1823)

Name	Lifespan	Reign start	Reign end	Notes	Family
Ahmad Shah Durrani the Father of the Nation	1720/1722 – 4 June 1772	June 1747	4 June 1772	Established the Durrani dynasty and the Durrani Empire; Considered founder of modern Afghanistan	Durrani
Timur Shah Durrani	December 1746 – 20 May 1793	November 1772	20 May 1793	Son of Ahmad Shah Durrani Preserved the Durrani Empire following the death of his father after fighting off civil war in 1772, and multiple rebellions	Durrani
Zaman Shah Durrani	1770–1844	20 May 1793	25 July 1801 (deposed)	Son of Timur Shah Durrani Engaged in civil war with his brothers after the death of his father, later being deposed	Durrani
Mahmud Shah Durrani (1st reign) Shah Mahmud	1769 – 18 April 1829	25 July 1801	13 July 1803 (deposed)	Son of Timur Shah Durrani Engaged in civil war with his brothers after the death of his father, later being deposed	Durrani
Shah Shujah Durrani (1st reign) Inayat-i-llahi, Shuja ul-Mulk, Muhammad Bahadur	4 November 1785 – 5 April 1842	13 July 1803	3 May 1809 (deposed)	Son of Timur Shah Durrani Engaged in civil war with his brothers after the death of his father, later being deposed, and making multiple attempts to reclaim his throne	Durrani
Mahmud Shah Durrani (2nd reign) Shah Mahmud	1769 – 18 April 1829	3 May 1809	1818 (deposed)	Son of Timur Shah Durrani Exiled to Herat following his deposition during his second reign	Durrani
Ali Shah Durrani	Died 1818/1819	1818	1819 (deposed)	Son of Timur Shah Durrani	Durrani
Ayub Shah Durrani	Died 1 October 1837	1819	1823 (deposed)	Son of Timur Shah Durrani	Durrani

Emirate of Kabul / Emirate of Afghanistan (1823–1926)

Name	Lifespan	Reign start	Reign end	Notes	Family
Sultan Mohammad Khan Mohammad Khan Telai	1792–1834	1823	1826 (deposed)	First ruler of the Barakzai dynasty; Son of Sardar Payendah Khan, brother of Dost Mohammad Khan	Barakzai
Dost Mohammad Khan (1st reign) Amir al-Mu'minin, Amir-i Kabir	23 December 1792 – 9 June 1863	Summer 1826	6 August 1839 (deposed)	Son of Sardar Payendah Khan Forged campaigns to re-unite Afghanistan which was divided due to the civil wars between the sons of Timur Shah Durrani. Reign disputed from 1839–1842 by Shah Shujah Durrani in the First Anglo-Afghan War	Barakzai
Shah Shujah Durrani (2nd reign) Inayat-i-llahi, Shuja ul-Mulk, Muhammad Bahadur	4 November 1785 – 5 April 1842	7 August 1839	5 April 1842	Son of Timur Shah Durrani Returned to the throne with the help of the British in the First Anglo-Afghan War, murdered in the aftermath of the 1842 retreat from Kabul	Durrani
Akbar Khan Amīr Akbar Khān, Mohammad Akbar Khān	1816–1847	May 1842	1843	Son of Dost Mohammad Khan	Barakzai
Dost Mohammad Khan (2nd reign) Amir al-Mu'minin, Amir-i Kabir	23 December 1792 – 9 June 1863	1843	9 June 1863	Son of Sardar Payendah Khan Returned to the throne after the British and Shah Shuja were defeated in the First Anglo-Afghan War. Coined the term "Afghanistan" after an alliance with the British. Went on to defeat the remaining powers inside Afghanistan^{[note 1]}, reunifying the country after a brutal civil war lasting 70 years from 1793–1863 by the time of his death	Barakzai
Sher Ali Khan (1st reign)	1825 – 21 February 1879	9 June 1863	May 1866 (deposed)	Son of Dost Mohammad Khan	Barakzai
Mohammad Afzal Khan	1815 – 7 October 1867	May 1866	7 October 1867	Son of Dost Mohammad Khan	Barakzai
Mohammad Azam Khan	1820–1870	7 October 1867	21 August 1868	Son of Dost Mohammad Khan	Barakzai
Sher Ali Khan (2nd reign)	1825 – 21 February 1879	9 September 1868	21 February 1879	Son of Dost Mohammad Khan	Barakzai
Mohammad Yaqub Khan	1849 – 15 November 1923	21 February 1879	12 October 1879 (deposed)	Son of Sher Ali Khan Deposed during the Second Anglo-Afghan War	Barakzai
Ayub Khan the Victor of Maiwand the Afghan Prince Charlie	1857 – 7 April 1914	12 October 1879	31 May 1880 (deposed)	Son of Sher Ali Khan Defeated in the Battle of Kandahar and exiled at the end of the Second Anglo-Afghan War	Barakzai
Abdur Rahman Khan the Iron Amir	1840/44 – 1 October 1901	31 May 1880	1 October 1901	Son of Mohammad Afzal Khan	Barakzai
Habibullah Khan	3 June 1872 – 20 February 1919	1 October 1901	20 February 1919	Son of Abdur Rahman Khan	Barakzai
Nasrullah Khan	1874–1920	20 February 1919	28 February 1919 (deposed)	Son of Abdur Rahman Khan	Barakzai
Amanullah Khan	1 June 1892 – 25 April 1960	28 February 1919	9 June 1926	Son of Habibullah Khan	Barakzai

Kingdom of Afghanistan (1926–1929)

Name	Lifespan	Reign start	Reign end	Notes	Family	Image
Amanullah Khan	1 June 1892 – 25 April 1960	9 June 1926	14 January 1929 (abdicated)	Son of Habibullah Khan	Barakzai
Inayatullah Khan	20 October 1888 – 12 August 1946	14 January 1929	17 January 1929 (deposed)	Son of Habibullah Khan	Barakzai

Saqqawist Emirate and the 1928–1929 civil war

Name	Lifespan	Reign start	Reign end	Notes	Family
Habibullāh Kalakāni Bacha-ye Saqao	19 January 1891 – 3 November 1929	17 January 1929 ^{[note 2]}	13 October 1929	Styled as king and emir ^{[note 3]}; contested the throne during the 1928–29 civil war;^[18] deposed and executed^[19]	Non-dynastic
Ali Ahmad Khan	1883 – 11 July 1929	17 January 1929	9 February 1929	Grandson of Dost Mohammad Khan (maternal) Styled as King; rose in opposition to Kalakāni during the 1928–29 civil war; captured and executed	Barakzai
Amanullah Khan	1 June 1892 – 25 April 1960	March 1929	23 May 1929	Son of Habibullah Khan Former King; returned to Afghanistan to contest the throne during the 1928–29 civil war; eventually retreated back into British India;^[20] See also Amanullah loyalism	Barakzai

Kingdom of Afghanistan (restored; 1929–1973)

Name	Lifespan	Reign start	Reign end	Notes	Family	Image
Mohammad Nadir Shah	9 April 1883 – 8 November 1933	15 October 1929^[21]	8 November 1933	Great-nephew of Dost Mohammed Khan Assassinated by Abdul Khaliq Hazara^[22]	Barakzai
Mohammad Zahir Shah the Father of the Nation (from 2004) ^{[note 4]}	15 October 1914 – 23 July 2007	8 November 1933	17 July 1973 (deposed)	Son of Mohammad Nadir Shah Deposed by first cousin Mohammad Daoud Khan in the 1973 coup d'état^[6]	Barakzai

Local monarchs

Some rulers tried to take advantage of internal conflicts in Afghanistan to claim the throne. However, their rule was limited only to certain areas.

Name	Lifespan	Reign start	Reign end	Notes	Family
Jehandad Khan	Died 1914	May 1912	May 1912 (deposed)	Styled as Emir; ruled only in Khost during the 1912 rebellion	Non-dynastic
Abd-al Karim	1897 – 18 February 1927	July 1924	30 January 1925 (deposed)	Son of Mohammad Yaqub Khan Styled as Emir; rule limited to the Southern Province during the 1924–1925 rebellion	Barakzai
Salemai		c. 1944	c. 1946 (deposed)	Styled as King; rule limited to the Eastern Province during the 1944–47 tribal revolts	Non-dynastic

Non-monarchs

Name		Portrait	Lifespan	Term of office			Political affiliation
Name		Portrait	Lifespan	Took office	Left office	Time in office	Political affiliation
Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)
	Mohammad Daoud Khan		1909–1978	17 July 1973	28 April 1978	4 years, 285 days	Independent (until 1974)
				17 July 1973	28 April 1978	4 years, 285 days	National Revolutionary Party
				President; Member of the Barakzai dynasty (first cousin of Mohammed Zahir Shah); Assassinated with most of his family during the Saur Revolution;^[23] Supposedly killed for refusing to surrender to the new authorities.^[24]^[8]^[25]
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1992)
	Colonel Abdul Qadir		1944–2014	28 April 1978	30 April 1978	2 days	People's Democratic Party (Khalq faction)
	Colonel Abdul Qadir		1944–2014	Chairman of the Presidium of the Military Revolutionary Council.
	Nur Muhammad Taraki		1917–1979	30 April 1978	14 September 1979	1 year, 137 days	People's Democratic Party (Khalq faction)
	Nur Muhammad Taraki		1917–1979	Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Assassinated by orders of Hafizullah Amin.
	Hafizullah Amin		1929–1979	14 September 1979	27 December 1979	104 days	People's Democratic Party (Khalq faction)
	Hafizullah Amin		1929–1979	Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Assassinated by Soviet special forces during the Operation Storm-333.^[26]
	Babrak Karmal		1929–1996	27 December 1979	24 November 1986	6 years, 332 days	People's Democratic Party (Parcham faction)
	Babrak Karmal		1929–1996	Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Dismissed.
	Haji Mohammad Chamkani		1947–2012	24 November 1986	30 September 1987	310 days	Independent
	Haji Mohammad Chamkani		1947–2012	Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Appointed as part of the National Reconciliation process.
	Mohammad Najibullah		1947–1996	30 September 1987	16 April 1992	4 years, 199 days	People's Democratic Party (Parcham faction) (until 1990)
				30 September 1987	16 April 1992	4 years, 199 days	Homeland Party
				President (Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council until 30 November 1987); Resigned.
	Abdul Rahim Hatif		1926–2013	16 April 1992	28 April 1992	12 days	Homeland Party
	Abdul Rahim Hatif		1926–2013	Acting President; Deposed.
Islamic State of Afghanistan (1992–2002)
	Sibghatullah Mojaddedi		1926–2019	28 April 1992	28 June 1992	61 days	National Liberation Front of Afghanistan
	Sibghatullah Mojaddedi		1926–2019	Acting President; Resigned.
	Burhanuddin Rabbani		1940–2011	28 June 1992	22 December 2001	9 years, 177 days	Jamiat-e Islami
	Burhanuddin Rabbani		1940–2011	President; Fled Kabul following its fall to the Taliban on 27 September 1996;^[27] Continued to serve as president in areas controlled by the Northern Alliance during the 1996–2001 Civil War until being fully reinstated following the recapture of Kabul on 13 November 2001; Between 1996 and 2001, the Islamic State remained the internationally recognized government, despite only controlling about 10% of Afghan territory.
	Hamid Karzai		born 1957	22 December 2001	13 July 2002	203 days	Independent
	Hamid Karzai		born 1957	Chairman of the Afghan Interim Administration; Appointed by the 2001 Bonn Conference.^[28]
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)
	Mullah Mohammed Omar		between 1953 and 1966^[29] – 2013	27 September 1996	13 November 2001	5 years, 47 days	Taliban
	Mullah Mohammed Omar		between 1953 and 1966^[29] – 2013	Supreme Leader; Deposed during the fall of Kabul,^[30] and went into hiding following the fall of Kandahar on 7 December 2001;^[31]^[32] Continued to claim the position in rebellion during the Taliban insurgency until his death on 23 April 2013; Between 1996 and 2001, the Islamic Emirate never attained widespread international recognition, despite controlling about 90% of Afghan territory.
Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan (2002–2004)
	Hamid Karzai		born 1957	13 July 2002	7 December 2004	2 years, 147 days	Independent
	Hamid Karzai		born 1957	Transitional President; Appointed by the 2002 loya jirga.
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2004–2021)
	Hamid Karzai		born 1957	7 December 2004	29 September 2014	9 years, 296 days	Independent
	Hamid Karzai		born 1957	President; First democratically elected head of state; Elected in 2004 and re-elected in 2009.
	Ashraf Ghani		born 1949	29 September 2014	15 August 2021	6 years, 320 days	Independent
	Ashraf Ghani		born 1949	President; First peaceful transition of power; Elected in 2014 and re-elected in 2019; Deposed during the fall of Kabul.
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (2021–present)
	Mullah Mawlawi Hibatullah Akhundzada		Birth date not known	15 August 2021^[12]	Incumbent	3 years, 101 days	Taliban
	Mullah Mawlawi Hibatullah Akhundzada		Birth date not known	Supreme Leader; Claimed the position in rebellion during the Taliban insurgency from 25 May 2016 until the recapture of Kabul. The Islamic Emirate is currently not internationally recognized, despite controlling all Afghan territory.^[33]

Family tree of monarchs

Family tree of Afghan monarchs

Salim Khan

Hotak
dynasty

Mirwais
Khan Hotak
⁽¹⁾
r. 1709–1715

Abdul Aziz
Hotak
⁽²⁾
r. 1715–1717

Mahmud
Hotak
⁽³⁾
r. 1717–1725

Hussain
Hotak
⁽⁵⁾
r. 1725–1738

Ashraf
Hotak
⁽⁴⁾
r. 1725–1729

Durrani
dynasty

Ahmad Shah
Durrani
⁽¹⁾
r. 1747–1772

Sardar
Payinda
Mohammad
Khan

Barakzai
dynasty

Timur Shah
Durrani
⁽²⁾
r. 1772–1793

Mohammad
Khan
⁽¹⁾
r. 1823–1826

Dost
Mohammad
Khan
⁽²⁾
r. 1826–1839,
1843–1863

Zaman Shah
Durrani
⁽³⁾
r. 1793–1801

Mahmud Shah
Durrani
⁽⁴⁾
r. 1801–1803,
1809–1818

Shah Shujah
Durrani
⁽⁵⁾
r. 1803–1809,
1839–1842

Ali Shah
Durrani
⁽⁶⁾
r. 1818–1819

Ayub Shah
Durrani
⁽⁷⁾
r. 1819–1823

Mohammad
Afzal Khan
⁽⁵⁾
r. 1866–1867

Akbar Khan
⁽³⁾
r. 1842–1843

Mohammad
Azam Khan
⁽⁶⁾
r. 1867–1868

Sher Ali
Khan
⁽⁴⁾
r. 1863-1866,
1868–1879

Sahira
Begum

Loinab
Khush
Dil Khan

Ali Ahmad
Mirza

Sardar
Mohammad
Yahya Khan

Hamdan
Sultana
Begum

Abdur
Rahman
Khan
⁽⁹⁾
r. 1880–1901

Mohammad
Yaqub Khan
⁽⁷⁾
r. 1879

Mohammad
Ayub Khan
⁽⁸⁾
r. 1879–1880

Sharaf
Sultana
Hukumat
Begum

Sardar
Mohammad
Yusuf Khan

Sardar
Mohammad
Asif Khan

Habibullah
Khan
⁽¹⁰⁾
r. 1901–1919

Nasrullah
Khan
⁽¹¹⁾
r. 1919

Mohammad
Nadir Shah
⁽¹⁵⁾
r. 1929–1933

Mah Parwar
Begum

Inayatullah
Khan
⁽¹³⁾
r. 1929

Amanullah
Khan
⁽¹²⁾
r. 1919–1929,
1929

Ali Ahmad
Khan
⁽¹⁴⁾
r. 1929

Mohammad
Zahir Shah
⁽¹⁶⁾
r. 1933–1973

Timeline from 1880

Standards of heads of state

Standard of the king of Afghanistan, c. 1919–1929
Standard of the king of Afghanistan, 1931–1973.
Standard of the president of Afghanistan, 1974–1978.
Standard of the president of Afghanistan, 2004–2013.
Standard of the president of Afghanistan, 2013–2021.

Notes

^ Most notably Herat (see Herat campaign of 1862–1863) and Qandahar (see Conquest of Kandahar).
^ Most sources list 17 January 1929, the day that Kalakāni captured Kabul, as the date that his reign began.^[13]^[14] However, he had been formally claiming the title of emir since 14 December 1928.^[15]
^ Kalakāni referred to himself as both "king"^[16] and "emir".^[17]
^ "The late King was always fondly referred to by all Afghans, cutting across ethnic boundaries, as "Baba-e-Millat" or 'Father of the Nation', a position given to him in the country's Constitution promulgated in January 2004, about two years after the collapse of Taliban rule. The title of the 'Father of the Nation' dissolves with his death." "Last King of Afghanistan dies at 92". Archived from the original on 30 September 2007.

References

^ "An Outline Of The History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722-1922)". Edward Granville Browne. London: Packard Humanities Institute. p. 29. Retrieved 24 September 2010.
^ Otfinoski, Steven (2004). Afghanistan. Infobase Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 0-8160-5056-2. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
^ Malleson, George Bruce (1878). History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878. London: Elibron.com. p. 227. ISBN 1-4021-7278-8. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
^ "Afghanistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 26 July 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2010. Ahmad Shah DURRANI unified the Pashtun tribes and founded Afghanistan in 1747.
^ "Last Afghan empire". Louis Dupree, Nancy Hatch Dupree and others. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Version. Retrieved 24 September 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Afghan King Overthrown; A Republic Is Proclaimed". The New York Times. 18 July 1973. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
^ Barfield, Thomas (25 March 2012). Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History (Princeton Studies in Muslim Politics). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691154411.
^ ^a ^b William Borders (28 April 1978). "Coup Is Reported in Afghanistan". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
^ "A Look At Afghanistan's 40 Years Of Crisis — From The Soviet War To Taliban Recapture". NPR. 31 August 2021.
^ "Instability in Afghanistan". Global Conflict Tracker. Retrieved 23 April 2023.
^ "President Ashraf Ghani flees Afghanistan as Taliban enters Kabul". South China Morning Post. Reuters. 15 August 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
^ ^a ^b
- Sieff, Kevin (15 August 2021). "The Taliban has retaken control of Afghanistan. Here's what that looked like last time". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
- Mellen, Ruby (3 September 2021). "The Taliban has decided on its government. Here's who could lead the organization". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
- Faulkner, Charlie (3 September 2021). "Spiritual leader is Afghanistan's head of state — with bomb suspect set to be PM". The Times. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
^ Qassem, Dr Ahmad Shayeq (28 March 2013). Afghanistan's Political Stability: A Dream Unrealised. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 175. ISBN 9781409499428.
^ Wazir, Azmatullah Khan (2002). The immediate solution of Afghan crisis. A.K. Wazir. p. 8.
^ Muḥammad, Fayz̤; McChesney, R. D. (1999). Kabul under siege: Fayz Muhammad's account of the 1929 Uprising. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 37. ISBN 9781558761544.
^ "ExecutedToday.com » 1929: Habibullah Kalakani, Tajik bandit-king". 1 November 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
^ Muḥammad, Fayz̤; Hazārah, Fayz̤ Muḥammad Kātib; Muḥammad, Faiḍ (1999). Kabul Under Siege: Fayz Muhammad's Account of the 1929 Uprising. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-55876-155-1.
^ "Rebel Becomes King in Afghanistan". The New York Times. 18 January 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
^ "Afghan Usurper Yields to New King". The New York Times. 24 October 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
^ "Amanullah Hungry in Flight to India". The New York Times. 26 May 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
^ "Nadir Khan is Elected Amir of Afghanistan". The New York Times. 18 October 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
^ "King of Afghanistan Is Slain at Kabul; Stable Boy Won Throne by Military Skill". The New York Times. 9 November 1933. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
^ "There was, therefore, little to hinder the assault mounted by the rebel 4th Armored Brigade, led by Major Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, who had also been prominent in Daoud's own coup five years before. Watanjar first secured the airport, where the other coup leader, Colonel Abdul Qadir, left by helicopter for the Bagram air base. There he took charge and organized air strikes on the presidential palace, where Daoud and the presidential guard were conducting a desperate defense. Fighting continued the whole day and into the night, when the defenders were finally overwhelmed. Daoud and almost all of his family members, including women and children, died in the fighting. Altogether there were possibly as many as two thousand fatalities, both military and civilian." p. 88 of Ewans, Martin (2002) Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics HarperCollins, New York, Page 88 ISBN 0-06-050507-9
^ "1978: Afghan coup rebels claim victory". 29 April 1978 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
^ Ghaus, Abdul Samad (1988). The fall of Afghanistan: an insider's account. Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's Intern. Defense Publ. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-08-034701-1.
^ "How Soviet troops stormed Kabul palace". BBC. 27 December 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
^ "Afghan Fundamentalists Sweep Into Kabul". The New York Times. 27 September 1996. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
^ "Bonn Agreement" (PDF). United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs. 5 December 2001. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
^ "Security Council 1988 Committee Amends 105 Entries on Its Sanctions List | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases". www.un.org. Archived from the original on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
^ David S. Rohde with Dexter Filkins (13 November 2001). "Taliban Troops Abandon Capital Without a Fight". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
^ David S. Rohde with Norimitsu Onishi (8 December 2001). "TALIBAN ABANDON LAST STRONGHOLD; OMAR IS NOT FOUND". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
^ Dam, Bette (2019). "The Secret Life of Mullah Omar" (PDF). Zomia Center. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
^ Trofimov, Yaroslav (13 September 2021). "As Taliban Seek International Acceptance, Countries Seek to Engage—but Stop Short of Recognition". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 20 September 2021.

External links

Presidency of Afghanistan (15 August 2021 archive)

[13] Most notably Herat (see Herat campaign of 1862–1863) and Qandahar (see Conquest of Kandahar).

[14dec1928-17] Most sources list 17 January 1929, the day that Kalakāni captured Kabul, as the date that his reign began.^[13]^[14] However, he had been formally claiming the title of emir since 14 December 1928.^[15]

[rulerofafghanistan-20] Kalakāni referred to himself as both "king"^[16] and "emir".^[17]

[fatherofthenation-26] "The late King was always fondly referred to by all Afghans, cutting across ethnic boundaries, as "Baba-e-Millat" or 'Father of the Nation', a position given to him in the country's Constitution promulgated in January 2004, about two years after the collapse of Taliban rule. The title of the 'Father of the Nation' dissolves with his death." "Last King of Afghanistan dies at 92". Archived from the original on 30 September 2007.

[1] "An Outline Of The History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722-1922)". Edward Granville Browne. London: Packard Humanities Institute. p. 29. Retrieved 24 September 2010.

[Otfinoski-2] Otfinoski, Steven (2004). Afghanistan. Infobase Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 0-8160-5056-2. Retrieved 27 September 2010.

[3] Malleson, George Bruce (1878). History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878. London: Elibron.com. p. 227. ISBN 1-4021-7278-8. Retrieved 27 September 2010.

[4] "Afghanistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 26 July 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2010. Ahmad Shah DURRANI unified the Pashtun tribes and founded Afghanistan in 1747.

[5] "Last Afghan empire". Louis Dupree, Nancy Hatch Dupree and others. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Version. Retrieved 24 September 2010.

[NYT1-6] "Afghan King Overthrown; A Republic Is Proclaimed". The New York Times. 18 July 1973. Retrieved 3 May 2020.

[7] Barfield, Thomas (25 March 2012). Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History (Princeton Studies in Muslim Politics). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691154411.

[NYT2-8] William Borders (28 April 1978). "Coup Is Reported in Afghanistan". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 August 2021.

[9] "A Look At Afghanistan's 40 Years Of Crisis — From The Soviet War To Taliban Recapture". NPR. 31 August 2021.

[10] "Instability in Afghanistan". Global Conflict Tracker. Retrieved 23 April 2023.

[11] "President Ashraf Ghani flees Afghanistan as Taliban enters Kabul". South China Morning Post. Reuters. 15 August 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2021.

[Akhundzada-12] 
Sieff, Kevin (15 August 2021). "The Taliban has retaken control of Afghanistan. Here's what that looked like last time". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 November 2021.

Mellen, Ruby (3 September 2021). "The Taliban has decided on its government. Here's who could lead the organization". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 November 2021.

Faulkner, Charlie (3 September 2021). "Spiritual leader is Afghanistan's head of state — with bomb suspect set to be PM". The Times. Retrieved 17 January 2022.

[17] Sieff, Kevin (15 August 2021). "The Taliban has retaken control of Afghanistan. Here's what that looked like last time". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 November 2021.

[18] Mellen, Ruby (3 September 2021). "The Taliban has decided on its government. Here's who could lead the organization". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 November 2021.

[19] Faulkner, Charlie (3 September 2021). "Spiritual leader is Afghanistan's head of state — with bomb suspect set to be PM". The Times. Retrieved 17 January 2022.

[14] Qassem, Dr Ahmad Shayeq (28 March 2013). Afghanistan's Political Stability: A Dream Unrealised. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 175. ISBN 9781409499428.

[15] Wazir, Azmatullah Khan (2002). The immediate solution of Afghan crisis. A.K. Wazir. p. 8.

[16] Muḥammad, Fayz̤; McChesney, R. D. (1999). Kabul under siege: Fayz Muhammad's account of the 1929 Uprising. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 37. ISBN 9781558761544.

[:4-18] "ExecutedToday.com » 1929: Habibullah Kalakani, Tajik bandit-king". 1 November 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2019.

[:1-19] Muḥammad, Fayz̤; Hazārah, Fayz̤ Muḥammad Kātib; Muḥammad, Faiḍ (1999). Kabul Under Siege: Fayz Muhammad's Account of the 1929 Uprising. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-55876-155-1.

[NYT3-21] "Rebel Becomes King in Afghanistan". The New York Times. 18 January 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.

[NYT4-22] "Afghan Usurper Yields to New King". The New York Times. 24 October 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.

[NYT5-23] "Amanullah Hungry in Flight to India". The New York Times. 26 May 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.

[NYT6-24] "Nadir Khan is Elected Amir of Afghanistan". The New York Times. 18 October 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.

[NYT7-25] "King of Afghanistan Is Slain at Kabul; Stable Boy Won Throne by Military Skill". The New York Times. 9 November 1933. Retrieved 3 August 2021.

[27] "There was, therefore, little to hinder the assault mounted by the rebel 4th Armored Brigade, led by Major Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, who had also been prominent in Daoud's own coup five years before. Watanjar first secured the airport, where the other coup leader, Colonel Abdul Qadir, left by helicopter for the Bagram air base. There he took charge and organized air strikes on the presidential palace, where Daoud and the presidential guard were conducting a desperate defense. Fighting continued the whole day and into the night, when the defenders were finally overwhelmed. Daoud and almost all of his family members, including women and children, died in the fighting. Altogether there were possibly as many as two thousand fatalities, both military and civilian." p. 88 of Ewans, Martin (2002) Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics HarperCollins, New York, Page 88 ISBN 0-06-050507-9

[28] "1978: Afghan coup rebels claim victory". 29 April 1978 – via news.bbc.co.uk.

[29] Ghaus, Abdul Samad (1988). The fall of Afghanistan: an insider's account. Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's Intern. Defense Publ. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-08-034701-1.

[30] "How Soviet troops stormed Kabul palace". BBC. 27 December 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2021.

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[32] "Bonn Agreement" (PDF). United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs. 5 December 2001. Retrieved 30 June 2022.

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[NYT9-34] David S. Rohde with Dexter Filkins (13 November 2001). "Taliban Troops Abandon Capital Without a Fight". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 March 2022.

[NYT10-35] David S. Rohde with Norimitsu Onishi (8 December 2001). "TALIBAN ABANDON LAST STRONGHOLD; OMAR IS NOT FOUND". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 November 2022.

[Bette_Dam-36] Dam, Bette (2019). "The Secret Life of Mullah Omar" (PDF). Zomia Center. Retrieved 29 June 2022.

[37] Trofimov, Yaroslav (13 September 2021). "As Taliban Seek International Acceptance, Countries Seek to Engage—but Stop Short of Recognition". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 20 September 2021.

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v t e Monarchs of Afghanistan
Hotak Empire	Mirwais Hotak Abdul Aziz Hotak Mahmud Hotak Ashraf Hotak Hussain Hotak
Durrani Empire	Ahmad Shah Durrani Timur Shah Durrani Zaman Shah Durrani Mahmud Shah Durrani Shah Shujah Durrani Ali Shah Durrani Ayub Shah Durrani
Barakzai Emirate	Sultan Mohammad Khan Dost Mohammad Khan Akbar Khan Sher Ali Khan Mohammad Afzal Khan Mohammad Azam Khan Mohammad Yaqub Khan Ayub Khan Abdur Rahman Khan Habibullah Khan Jehandad Khan Nasrullah Khan
Barakzai Kingdom	Amanullah Khan Abd-al Karim Inayatullah Khan
Saqqawist Emirate (unrecognized)	Habibullāh Kalakāni
Barakzai Kingdom (restored)	Mohammad Nadir Shah Mohammad Zahir Shah Salemai
Italics indicates localized rebel monarchs

v t e Heads of state of Afghanistan (since 1973)
Daoud Republic (President)	Mohammad Daoud Khan
Democratic Republic (Chairman)	Nur Muhammad Taraki Hafizullah Amin Babrak Karmal Haji Mohammad Chamkani* Mohammad Najibullah Abdul Rahim Hatif*
Islamic State (President)	Sibghatullah Mojaddedi* Burhanuddin Rabbani Hamid Karzai*
Islamic Emirate (Supreme Leader)	Mullah Omar
Transitional Islamic State (President)	Hamid Karzai
Islamic Republic (President)	Hamid Karzai Ashraf Ghani
Islamic Emirate (Supreme Leader)	Hibatullah Akhundzada
* Acting